I can help with this part: "I'm hoping there is a way to create a job in Quickbooks that will let me track all the job costs related to producing the desk (including raw materials, labor costs, etc.)"

Yes, make a Customer name for this, or perhaps Customer = House, and Job = this project. Now you Job Track everything you asked, such as the inventory adjustment screen, top part = job track the adjustments; Job Track payroll so that the Service Item is assigned, starting from Timesheets and setting the employees to be paid from time data. That makes the Payroll cost part of the Job Cost reporting.

You don't need to use Estimates for this. You would do that for comparison reporting. What you need is to Job Track it, for it to be available for any reporting at all.